Emotions and Emotional Intelligence

Types of emotions:

• Anger
• Distress
• Joy
• Contempt
• Surprise
• Fear
• Disgust

Higher emotions:

• Shame
• Embarrassment
• Jealousy (fear of losing a human connection)
• Envy
• Love
• Pride
• Guilt

Emotional Intelligence, explained by the creator of the idea Daniel Goleman:

Pinker vs Spelke Debate

Personally, I am leaning towards the nurture side (Spelke's arguments). I think that most sex differences are due to society, culture, and nurturing. However, I agree with Pinker in that some differences are biological and therefore cannot be changed. Although in my opinion, there are only a few characteristics of a person that are biologically predetermined and cannot be changed: gender, ethnicity, nationality, name, age, certain diseases, and sexuality (although the latter is controversial). Spelke actually agreed in a few aspects with Pinker, in that she agreed that some sex differences are biological, and thus she actually proposed an answer to the Debate Question, unlike Pinker.

There are three types of positions that discuss sex differences. Extreme "nature" position: that males but not females have the talents and temperaments necessary for science. Extreme "nurture" position: that males and females are biologically indistinguishable, and all relevant sex differences are products of socialization and bias. Intermediate positions: that the difference is explainable by some combination of biological differences in average temperaments and talents interacting with socialization and bias.

Spelke argued that sex differences are mainly due to nurturing and society:

• Claims concerning sex differences should be evaluated by evidence. We agree that the mind is not a blank slate; there is such a thing as human nature.
• I think what caused this gap are social factors. There are no differences in science and mathematics between women and men. Men and women are not the same, and they don’t have identical cognitive profiles.
• Over the last months, there has been a popular argument that men have greater cognitive aptitude for science. The argument is that from birth, boys are interested in objects and mechanics, and girls are interested in people and emotions. However male and female infants are equally interested in objects. Male and female infants make the same inferences about object motion, at the same time in development. They learn the same things about object mechanics at the same time.
• Kids start manipulating objects to see if they can get a rectangular block into a circular hole. If you look at the rates at which boys and girls figure these things out, you don't find any differences. We see equal developmental paths.
• Male and female infants are both interested in objects and in people, and they learn about both.
• Animals don't do formal math or science, and neither did humans back in the Pleistocene.
• Five "core systems" at the foundations of mathematical reasoning.
• a system for representing small exact numbers of objects — the difference between one, two, and three. This system emerges in human infants at about five months of age, and it continues to be present in adults.
• a system for discriminating large, approximate numerical magnitudes — the difference between a set of about ten things and a set of about 20 things.system also emerges early in infancy, at four or five months, and continues to be present and functional in adults.
• the system of natural number concepts that we construct as children when we learn verbal counting.That construction takes place between about the ages of two and a half and four years.
• The predisposition to figure out the mechanics of the world sets boys on a path that makes them more likely to become scientists or mathematicians.
• People may have equal abilities to develop intuitive understanding of the physical world, but formal math and science don't build on these intuitions. Scientists use mathematics to come up with new characterizations of the world and new principles to explain its functioning. Maybe males have an edge in scientific reasoning because of their greater talent for mathematics.
• normal mathematics is not something we have evolved to do; it's a recent accomplishment
• We agree on free speech and free academic inquiry, claims concerning sex differences are empirical, genes matter, a humble role for science in society
• The first uniquely human foundation for numerical abilities is the system of natural number concepts that we construct as children when we learn verbal counting. That construction takes place between about the ages of two and a half and four years. The last two systems are first seen in children when they navigate. One system represents the geometry of the surrounding layout. The other system represents landmark objects.

WE think that Gender Stereotypes influence how males and females are perceived.

Parent’s describe their children as:

sons are big, strong and hardy at birth

12 months old: sons are predicted to perform better at locomotor tasks

6 y.o.: sons have more of a natural talent in Math

8 y.o.: sons are more talented in science

A study showed a video of a baby. Half were given male and half female names. Children with male names were more likely to be rated as strong, intelligent, and active;

those with female names were more likely to be rated as little, soft, and so forth.

Parents perceptions of children's behavior and emotions will influence their actions towards those children. This influence will occur even if parents are determined to treat their sons and daughters alike.

Resumes:

For the great candidate, there was no effect of gender labeling on these judgments. This supports Pinker that there is little open discrimination in universities.

However

In the average successful resume there were differences. The male were rated as having higher research productivity and more teaching experience. These psychologists, Steve's and my colleagues, looked at the same number of publications and thought, "good productivity" when the name was male, and "less good productivity" when the name was female. In answer to the question would they hire the candidate, 70% said yes for the male, 45% for the female. To sum up, the male would get hired and the female would not.

Effects:

First, and most obviously, biased perceptions produce discrimination: When a group of equally qualified men and women are evaluated for jobs, more of the men will get those jobs if they are perceived to be more qualified. Second, if people are rational, more men than women will put themselves forward into the academic competition, because men will see that they've got a better chance for success. Academic jobs will be more attractive to men because they face better odds, will get more resources, and so forth.

Four effects of discrimination and discouragement:

Biased perceptions by fellow scientists will weed out some talented women directly

Unequal opportunities will deter some talented women from attempting careers in science.

Biased perceptions earlier in life will deter some talented girls from studying science.

4. The gender gap on science facilities will  lead some students to view high-level science as a man's world.

• hard to discern what gender is better at certain things (e.g. which gender is more spatially or object oriented)(which sex is better at science or math)

SAT is a good example which aims to test abilities and knowledge (however, it is almost impossible to test which gender does best on certain sections, females do some problems well, which males can do others well)

• “Research from the intersecting fields of cognitive neuroscience, neuropsychology, cognitive psychology, and cognitive development provide evidence for five "core systems" at the foundations of mathematical reasoning.” Five systems: representing small exact numbers of objects, discriminating large, approximate numerical magnitudes, natural number concepts that we construct as children when we learn verbal counting, the geometry of the surrounding layout, landmark objects

• there are no sex differences in primary abilities for mathematics
• at older ages women tend to have advantages in verbal fluency, rapid mathematical calculations and memory for the spatial positions of objects, whilst men have advantages in areas such as verbal analogies, rapid mathematical reasoning and memory for layout geometry, mental rotation.  
• hard to pick the jobs in which to conduct research in and determine which areas males and females master

Pinker argued that sex differences are mainly due to biology (e.g. genetics):

Liz has said that there is "not a shred of evidence" for the biological factor, that "the evidence against there being an advantage for males in intrinsic aptitude is so overwhelming that it is hard for me to see how one can make a case at this point on the other side," and that "it seems to me as conclusive as any finding I know of in science."But I don't think that in any of them I would say there is "not a shred of evidence" for the other side, even if I think that the evidence favors one side.

1. By proving my point, I quoted a book called Sex Differences in Cognitive Ability by Diane Halpern, a well known psychologists -(“Socialization practices are undoubtedly important, but there is also good evidence that biological sex differences play a role in establishing and maintaining cognitive sex differences”)
2. So the differences between the sexes are part of the human condition.  Sex is a problem in biology and sexual reproduction goes back years. I recognize that there is a theory namely Bob Trivers' theory of differential parental investment, which makes highly specific predictions about when you should expect sex differences and what they should look like. I also state that if we want to change this, we have to understand where the source of sex difference comes from. So, differences between the sexes are part of the human condition.

Casper and Lorinc:

1. “there is a crucial conceptual difference between difference and discrimination”

Therefore it is social influence, since women are discriminated at workplaces

2. Biological Similarities to support discrimination:

-General intelligence is at similar levels

-Similar Cognitions

- However there are gender differences, both have their talents men are better at throwing, whilst women are more dexterous. Men are better at mentally rotating shapes; women are better at visual memory. Men are better at mathematical solvings whilst women are better at mathematical calculations.

- (there are statistical differences in what men and women value differently) There are some things in life that the females rated higher than males, such as the ability to have a part-time career for a limited time in one's life; living close to parents and relatives; having a meaningful spiritual life; and having strong friendships

- Men prioritize having lots of money; inventing or creating something; having a full-time career; and being successful in one's line of work.

• Different jobs appeal to different genders, men want to work with things, whilst woman want to work with people. (working with people might be the director of a community service organization. The occupation that fits best with “things” are chemists, mathematicians, computer programs and biologists.

3. Further on, according to studies women are biologically equal:

-Talented

-Encouraged in math and sciences

-Have equal achievements

-Satisfied

-However, due to evolutionary /Biological dispositions, “men, on average, are more likely to chase status at the expense of their families;”

• For spatial ability, the advantage goes to women, but in "mental rotation,"spatial perception," and "spatial visualization" the advantage goes to men.

4. Biological influences could apply, through risk taking.

-Evolutionary, as Pinker states, that women are less risk takers, just due to their gender

-In a large meta-analysis involving 150 studies and 100,000 participants, in 14 out of 16 categories of risk-taking, men were overrepresented.

• Which is why they could be employed in more higher positions.

Idan:

-Effectiveness of aptitude tests (people in science careers are in the 90th percentile for SAT math)

-In a science paper by Novell and Hedges, it was found that in 35 out of 37 tests, the male variance for test results was higher than that of the female variance

-IQ in Scotland, females predominate in the middle, and men slightly predominate at both extremes.

-In nature vs. nurture, one is not completely responsible for male dominance in work, but we try to prove that biology is greater than zero

-levels of sex hormones, difference in brain size and shapes

-in all cultures, greater involvement of women in child care, and men in competitiveness

-To analyze Personality, a cross-national survey was conducted which had consistent results across the different age groups for personality difference in genders.

- Diane Halpern analyzed results for cognitive tests across ten nations and concluded that the majority of the results showed cross cultural consistency between genders

-Despite feminist movements, very little change in personal life interests were seen for both genders

-sex differences seen in other mammals (among baby vervet monkeys, males prefer to play with trucks and females with other toys)

-sex differences in early childhood, (newborn baby boys prefer looking at an object, while newborn baby girls at a face)

-Boys grown up as girls from an early age, showed 'boyish' behaviour

-No difference between way boys and girls are treated by parents and treated

-prenatal sex hormones affect people's behaviour, girls with male hormones prenatally had 'boyish' traits

• with X chromosomes, people who have only x chromosomes showed that if the x chromosome came from the mom, they acted more like girls, and if they got it from the father, then they were less social and more technical (boyish traits)

Gloria Steinem- "there are very few jobs that actually require a penis or a vagina, and all the other jobs should be open to both sexes."

Here is a video of the whole debate (in Harvard), 2-hours long:

Personality and Gender

Big Five of personality:

• Neuroticism
• Agreeableness
• Extraversion (Outgoingness)
• Openness to Experience
• Conscientiousness (Reliability)

We did a Harvard study of gender association to words (click here to test it out for yourself).

Gender: Culture or Genes?

Arguments for Culture	Arguments for Genetics
make up skirts, dresses high heels soldiers religious jobs hair length colors nail polish use in media caregiver	beard moustache breastfeeding body hair giving birth strength speed agility body structure maturity hormones

People who want the Culture side to "win" are usually feminists, activists, or liberals.

People who want the Genetics side to "win" are usually scientists or conservatives.

This is one part of a massive and on-going debate in Psychology called the "Nature vs Nurture Debate". In summary, the question is the following: What parts of the human behaviour can be taught and what parts are caused by biology?

This video explains it quite well:

Where the causes are cultural, it can be changed.

Where the causes are biological, some would say they are "stereotypes".

Religious people are usually against Genetics, as this would refute the belief that God created everything (including thoughts).

Gender Differences in Proffesions

All of the findings in this post are based on this video:

To sum up, the study was done by a Norwegian comedian, who asked professionals (psychologists and doctors) from Los Angeles, Cambridge, and Norway about their views on gender inequality in the workplace and it's origins.

The answers could be put in 2 groups:

• Group A: The origins of gender roles are mainly biological and/or evolutionary. Lippa (2009) proves this theory: he has created a survey regarding this topic in which people from over 50 countries took part, the results show clear cross-cultural differences between men and women. 
• Group B: Gender roles are created by society and/or culture - people make them, therefore they can be changed. This opinion is gaining popularity nowadays, according to one of the psychologists it is a generally accepted fact nowadays that there are no differences between the brains of men and women.